## Interference

Interference and coherent sources:  Monochromatic light is light with a single frequency.  Coherence is a definite, unchanging phase relationship between two waves.  The overlap of waves from two coherent sources of monochromatic light forms an interference pattern.  The principle of superposition states that the total wave disturbance at any point is the sum of the disturbances from the separate waves.

Two-source interference of light:  When two sources are in phase, constructive interference occurs where the difference in path length from the two sources is zero or an integer number of wavelengths; destructive interference occurs where path difference is a half-integer number of wavelengths.  If two sources separated by a distance $d$ are both very far from a point $P$, and the line from the sources make an angle $\theta$ with the line perpendicular to the line of the sources, then the condition for constructive interference at $P$ is $d\sin\theta=m\lambda, (m=0,\pm 1,\pm 2,\ldots)$.  The condition for destructive interference is $d\sin\theta=(m+\frac12)\lambda, (m=0,\pm1,\pm2,\ldots)$.  When $\theta$ is very small, the position $y_m$ of the $m$th bright fringe on a screen located at distance $R$ from the sources is: $y_m=R\frac{m\lambda}d, (m=0,\pm1,\pm2,\ldots)$.

Intensity in interference pattern:  When two sinusoidal waves with equal amplitude $E$ and phase difference $\phi$ are superimposed, the resultant amplitude $E_P$ and intensity $I$ are as follows: $E_P=2E|\cos\frac{\phi}2|$, $I=I_0\cos^2\frac{\phi}2$.  If the two sources emit in phase, the phase difference $\phi$ at a point $P$ (located a distance $r_1$ from source 1 and a distance $r_2$ from source 2) is directly proportional to the path difference $r_2-r_1$: $\phi=\frac{2\pi}{\lambda}(r_2-r_1)=k(r_2-r_1)$.

Interference in thin films:  When light is reflected from both sides of a thin film of thickness $t$ and no phase shift occurs at either surface, constructive interference between the reflected waves occurs when $2t$ is equal to an integral number of wavelengths.  If a half-cycle phase shift occurs at one surface, this is the condition for destructive interference.  A half-cycle phase shift occurs during reflection whenever the index of refraction in the second material is greater than in the first.

Michelson interferometer:  The Michelson interferometer uses a monochromatic light source and can be used for high-precision measurements of wavelengths.  Its original purpose was to detect motion of the earth relative to a hypothetical ether, the supposed medium for electromagnetic waves.  The ether has never been detected, and the concept has been abandoned; the speed of light is the same relative to all observers.  This is part of the foundation of the special theory of relativity.

## Geometric Optics

Reflection or refraction at a plane surface:  When rays diverge from an object point $P$ and are reflected or refracted, the directions of the outgoing rays are the same as though they had diverged from a point $P'$ called the image point.  If they actually converge at $P'$ and diverge again beyond it, $P'$ is a real image of $P$; if they only appear to have diverged from $P'$, it is a virtual image.  Images can be either erect or inverted.

Lateral magnification:  The lateral magnification $m$ in any reflecting or refracting situation is defined as the ratio of image height $y'$ to object height $y$, $m=\frac{y'}{y}$.  When $m$ is positive, the image is erect; when $m$ is negative, the image is inverted.

Focal point and focal length:  The focal point of a mirror is the point where parallel rays converge after reflection from a concave mirror, or the point from which they appear to diverge after reflection from a convex mirror.  Rays diverging from a focal point of a concave mirror are parallel after reflection; rays converging toward the focal point of a convex mirror are parallel after reflection.  The distance from the focal point to the vertex is called the focal length, denoted as $f$.  The focal points of a lens are defined similarly.

Relating object and image distances:
Plane mirror: $s=-s', m=1$.
Spherical mirror: $\frac1s+\frac1{s'}=\frac2R=\frac1f, m=-\frac{s'}s$.
Plane refracting surface: $\frac{n_a}s+\frac{n_b}{s'}=0, m=\frac{n_as'}{n_bs}=1$,
Spherical refracting surface: $\frac{n_a}s+\frac{n_b}{s'}=\frac{n_b-n_a}R, m=\frac{n_as'}{n_bs}$.

These object–image relationships are valid only for rays close to and nearly parallel to the optical axis; these are called paraxial rays.  Non-paraxial rays do not converge precisely to an image point.  This effect is called spherical aberration.

Thin lenses:  The lensmaker’s equation relates the focal length of a lens to its index of refraction and the radii of curvature of its surfaces.  $\frac1s+\frac1{s'}=\frac1f$, $\frac1f=(n-1)(\frac1{R_1}-\frac1{R_2})$.

Sign rules:  The following sign rules are used with all plane and spherical reflecting and refracting surfaces:

• $s>0$ when the object is on the incoming side of the surface (a real object); $s<0$ otherwise.
• $s'>0$ when the image is on the outgoing side of the surface (a real image); $s'<0$ otherwise.
• $R>0$ when the center of curvature is on the outgoing side of the surface; $R<0$ otherwise.
• $m>0$ when the image is erect; $m<0$ when inverted.

Cameras:  A camera forms a real, inverted, reduced image of the object being photographed on a light-sensitive surface.  The amount of light striking this surface is controlled by the shutter speed and the aperture.  The intensity of this light is inversely proportional to the square of the $f$-number of the lens: $f$-number$=\frac{\mathrm{Focal\ length}}{\mathrm{Aperture\ diameter}}=\frac{f}{D}$.

The eye:  In the eye, refraction at the surface of the cornea forms a real image on the retina.  Adjustment for various object distances is made by squeezing the lens, thereby making it bulge and decreasing its focal length.  A nearsighted eye is too long for its lens; a farsighted eye is too short.  The power of a corrective lens, in diopters, is the reciprocal of the focal length in meters.

The simple magnifier:  The simple magnifier creates a virtual image whose angular size $\theta'$ is larger than the angular size $\theta$ of the object itself at a distance of 25 cm, the nominal closest distance for comfortable viewing.  The angular magnification $M$ of a simple magnifier is the ratio of the angular size of the virtual image to that of the object at this distance.  $M=\frac{\theta'}{\theta}=\frac{25\ \mathrm{cm}}f$.

Microscopes and telescopes:  In a compound microscope, the objective lens forms a first image in the barrel of the instrument, and the eyepiece forms a final virtual image, often at infinity, of the first image.  The telescope operates on the same principle, but the object is far away.  In a reflecting telescope, the objective lens is replaced by a concave mirror, which eliminates chromatic aberrations.

## The Nature and Propagation of Light

Light and its properties.  Light is an electromagnetic wave.  When emitted or absorbed, it also shows particle properties.  It is emitted by accelerated electric charges.

A wave front is a surface of constant phase; wave fronts move with a speed equal to the propagation speed of the wave.  A ray is a line along the direction of propagation, perpendicular to the wave fronts.

When light is transmitted from one material to another, the frequency of the light is unchanged, but the wavelength and the wave speed can change.  The index of refraction of a material $n=\frac cv$, $\lambda=\frac{\lambda_0}n$.

Reflection and refraction.  $\theta_r=\theta_a$ (law of reflection), $n_a\sin\theta_a=n_b\sin\theta_b$ (law of refraction).

Total internal reflection.  When a ray travels in a material of index of refraction $n_a$ toward a material of index $n_b, total internal reflection occurs at the interface when the angle of incidence equals or exceeds a critical angle $\theta_{\mathrm{crit}}$, $\sin\theta_{\mathrm{crit}}=\frac{n_b}{n_a}$.

Polarization of light.  The direction of polarization of a linearly polarized electromagnetic wave is the direction of the $\vec{E}$ field.

Malus’s law.  When polarized light of intensity $I_{\max}$ is incident on a polarizing filter used as an analyzer, $I=I_{\max}\cos^2\phi$, $I$ is intensity of the light transmitted through the analyzer, $\phi$ is the angle between the polarization direction of the incident light and the polarizing axis of the analyzer.

Polarization by reflection.  When unpolarized light strikes an interface between two materials, Brewster’s law states that the reflected light is completely polarized perpendicular to the plane of incidence (parallel to the interface) if the angle of incidence is $\theta_p=\arctan\frac{n_b}{n_a}$.

Huygens’s principle.  If the position of a wave front at one instant is known, then the position of the front at a later time can be constructed by imagining the front as a source of secondary wavelets.

## Электромагнитные волны

Поток энергии (energy flux): количество энергии, переносимое через некоторую произвольную площадку в единицу времени, $\Pi=\frac{dW}{dt}$.

Плотность потока энергии (energy flow density/rate, power per unit area): физическая величина, численно равная потоку энергии через малую площадку единичной площади, перпендикулярную направлению потока, $J=\frac{d^2W}{dt\,dS}$.

Магнитная индукция (magnetic field) $\vec{B}$: сила Лоренца $\vec{F}$, действующая со стороны магнитного поля на заряд $q$, движущийся со скоростью $\vec{v}$: $\vec{F}=q[\vec{v}\times\vec{B}]$.

Интенсивность (intensity): скалярная физическая величина, количественно характеризующая мощность, переносимую волной в направлении распространения. Численно интенсивность равна усреднённой за период колебаний волны мощности излучения, проходящей через единичную площадку, расположенную перпендикулярно направлению распространения энергии.

Плотность импульса (momentum density) электромагнитной волны: $\frac{dp}{dV}=\frac{EB}{\mu_0c^2}=\frac{S}{c^2}$.

Плотность потока импульса (flow rate of electromagnetic momentum): $\frac1A\frac{dp}{dt}=\frac Sc=\frac{EB}{\mu_0c}$.

## Electromagnetic Waves

From Maxwell’s equations it follows that $E=cB$, $B=\epsilon_0\mu_0cE$, $c=\frac1{\sqrt{\epsilon_0\mu_0}}$, where $\mu_0=4\pi\times 10^{-7}\frac Hm$ is the magnetic constant.

Sinusoidal electromagnetic waves traveling in vacuum in the $+x$-direction: $\vec{E}(x,t)=\vec{j}E_{\max}\cos(kx-\omega t)$$\vec{B}(x,t)=\vec{k}B_{\max}\cos(kx-\omega t)$, $E_{\max}=cB_{\max}$.

Electromagnetic waves in matter:  $v=\frac1{\sqrt{\epsilon\mu}}=\frac1{\sqrt{KK_m}}\frac1{\sqrt{\epsilon_0\mu_0}}=\frac{c}{\sqrt{KK_m}}$, where $\epsilon$ is the permittivity of the dielectric, $\mu$ is its permeability, $K$ is its dielectric constant, and $K_m$ is its relative permeability.

Energy flow rate (power per unit area): $\vec{S}=\frac1{\mu_0}\vec{E}\times\vec{B}$ (Poynting vector), the intensity $I=S_{av}=\frac{E_{\max}B_{\max}}{2\mu_0}=\frac{E_{\max}^2}{2\mu_0c}=\frac12\sqrt{\frac{\epsilon_0}{\mu_0}}E_{\max}^2=\frac12\epsilon_0cE_{\max}^2$.

Radiation pressure on a perpendicular surface: $p_{\mathrm{rad}}=\frac Ic$ for a totally absorbing surface, $p_{\mathrm{rad}}=\frac{2I}c$ for a perfect reflector.

Flow rate of electromagnetic momentum:  $\frac1A\frac{dp}{dt}=\frac Sc=\frac{EB}{\mu_0c}$.

Standing electromagnetic waves:  If a perfect reflecting surface is placed at $x=0$, the incident and reflected waves form a standing wave.  Nodal planes for $\vec{E}$ occur at $kx=0,\pi,2\pi,\ldots$, and nodal planes for $\vec{B}$ are at $kx=\frac{\pi}2,\frac{3\pi}2,\frac{5\pi}2,\ldots$

## Mechanical Waves

Waves.  The wave speed $v=\lambda f$, $\lambda$ – the wavelength, $f$ – the frequency.

Wave functions and wave dynamics.  The displacement of individual particles in the medium
$y(x,t)=A\cos[\omega(\frac xv-t)]$ (or, more intuitively, $y(x,t)=A\cos[\omega(t-\frac xv)]$)
$y(x,t)=A\cos2\pi(\frac x\lambda-\frac tT)$
$y(x,t)=A\cos(kx-\omega t)$, where $k=\frac{2\pi}\lambda$ and $\omega=2\pi f=vk$
Wave function: $\frac{\partial^2y(x,t)}{\partial x^2}=\frac1{v^2}\frac{\partial^2y(x,t)}{\partial t^2}$